Carlos Sousa

• Coelho, Filipe J.; Crespo, Nuno Fernandes; Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Silva, Pedro & Bellora, Lorena (2026). EXPRESS: Navigating Export Markets: How Regulatory Focus Shapes International Marketing Agility in SMEs. Journal of International Marketing. ISSN 1069-031X. doi: 10.1177/1069031x261493939. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The world is undergoing major changes. In this context, international marketing agility (IMA), an emerging topic in international marketing research, is increasingly seen as crucial for success in export operations, particularly among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Accordingly, this research addresses the question of what drives firms to develop agile foreign marketing operations. Specifically, drawing on the Upper Echelons and Regulatory Focus (RF) theories, we examine how managers' psychological motivations, namely, their promotion and prevention orientations, shape a firm’s IMA. We also contribute to existing knowledge by examining the boundary conditions that influence the RF-IMA relationship, considering the moderating roles of both the manager’s and the firm’s export experience. The hypotheses were tested using responses from 347 managers of Portuguese SMEs engaged in export activities. The results suggest that promotion orientation is positively related to IMA. The findings further suggest that managerial export experience and firm-level export experience exert distinct moderating effects on the relationships between promotion and prevention orientations and IMA. Finally, we determined that the positive relationship between IMA and export intensity is strengthened by competitive intensity.

• Azar, Goudarz; Batsakis, Georgios; Drogendijk, Rian & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2026). Is the glass half full or half empty? Underestimating versus overestimating institutional distance and the importance of managerial cognition. Long Range Planning. ISSN 0024-6301. 59(5). doi: 10.1016/j.lrp.2026.102663. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study draws on a microfoundational view of international business to examine how managerial misperceptions of institutional distance, specifically, the underestimation and overestimation of formal and informal institutional differences between home and host markets, shape expansion strategies, in particular, location choice. Further, using the cognitive appraisal theory as a lens, it examines the moderating role of managerial cognitive styles, focusing on how traits, e.g., sensing versus intuiting and judging versus perceiving, influence these managerial misperceptions and their impact on foreign location choice. Using data from a vignette experiment with 208 international managers, the findings reveal that misperceptions of institutional distance can significantly skew managers’ perceptions of a foreign location, with cognitive traits playing a crucial role in mitigating these biases. By exploring the role managerial cognition plays in international strategic decision-making, this research contributes to understanding the microfoundational underpinnings of foreign location choice and provides practical implications for achieving managerial decision objectivity in complex institutional environments.

• Ferreira, Joao C.; Sousa, Carlos Manuel Pereira E; Esperanca, Marco Delgado & Taheri, Babak (2026). Forecasting Airport Passenger Flows Using Mobile Network Data: Insights for Sustainable Mobility and Strategic Infrastructure Planning. Business Strategy and the Environment (BSE). ISSN 0964-4733. doi: 10.1002/bse.71058. Full text in Research Archive
• Wang, Kui; Tan, Qun; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Guo, Zhaoyang (2026). Are More Foreign Sales Better for the Financial Performance? An Institutional and Resource-based Perspective. MIR. Management International Review: journal of international business. ISSN 0938-8249. 66(3), p. 443–499. doi: 10.1007/s11575-026-00617-8. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Despite the rich literature on the internationalization–performance (I–P) relationship, prior studies have paid limited attention to its home country boundary conditions for emerging-market firms (EMFs). This study examines the moderating roles of environmental and organizational factors in the I–P relationship by building on institutional theory and the resource-based view. Based on panel data from Chinese-listed firms between 2008 and 2019, we found that industrial uncertainty and marketing capability positively moderate the impact of the degree of internationalization on EMFs' financial performance, whereas factor market development and the presence of state-owned enterprises have a negative moderating effect. Internationalization does not yield uniform performance benefits for EMFs; rather, it depends systematically on institutional and resource-based contingencies. Our findings help reconcile prior mixed results in the I–P literature and extend the I-P research by refining its boundary conditions in emerging-market contexts.

• Santos, Maria do Céu Colaço dos; Coelho, Filipe; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Evanschitzky, Heiner (2025). Emotional intelligence and employee creativity in high-tech firms. Innovation: Organization and Management. ISSN 1447-9338. 27(4), p. 643–666. doi: 10.1080/14479338.2025.2474960. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and creativity remains poorly understood. To address this gap, we have developed and tested a model that introduces novel mediating mechanisms, both positive and negative, to understand how EI affects employee creativity. We propose that EI influences variables with a high emotional content, which, in turn, affects the creative responses of employees, with employee creativity being assessed by supervisors. Based on a sample of 249 employees from high-tech firms, the results indicate that EI is directly related to task conflict, role stressors, and self-efficacy. Task conflict, in turn, contributes to role stressors, which is associated with creative behaviours and self-efficacy. Finally, self-efficacy is also related to employee creativity. Moreover, we determined that EI is not directly related to creativity and that its total indirect effect is also not significant. This appears to be the result of the complex set of transmission mechanisms considered in the study. While EI appears to indirectly contribute to creativity through, for example, self-efficacy, it also appears to mitigate it through role ambiguity. These results represent a set of novel contributions to existing knowledge. Overall, our findings suggest that the relationship between EI and creativity is complex and that managers should carefully consider how to leverage emotional intelligence to foster creativity.

• Aparicio, Sebastian; Lengler, Jorge; Aguzzoli, Roberta; Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Benito, Gabriel R G & Urbano, David (2025). Unfair competition and export intensity of Latin American SMEs: The role of regulations. International Business Review. ISSN 0969-5931. 34(4). doi: 10.1016/j.ibusrev.2025.102463. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Latin American countries exhibit significant levels of informal economic activity and a low degree of trade openness. Yet, little is known about the effect of these institutional characteristics on the performance of SMEs when venturing abroad to explore international markets. Based on an institutional voids approach, we explore the effects of unfair competition, particularly related to informality, on export intensity of SMEs conditioned by tariffs, trade regulations, and taxes in Latin America. Multilevel modeling is applied to a sample of 5781 Latin American firms. We hypothesize and find that SMEs increase their exports when they compete against informal firms. Higher tariffs and trade regulations reinforce such unfair competition and thus the decision to focus on international markets.

• Meng, Can; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Chen, Jieke (2024). Unraveling the relationship between innovation performance feedback and outward FDI: Moderating influence of inward FDI spillovers. Journal of Business Research. ISSN 0148-2963. 181. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2024.114731. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study examines the impact of innovation performance feedback on the outward foreign direct investment (FDI) of emerging market firms by differentiating between innovation quantity and innovation quality. It also explores the moderating role of inward FDI spillovers in local industrial environments. Using a zero-inflated negative binomial model, the findings show that: (1) the further a firm is below or above its innovation performance aspirations, the less outward FDI it will take; (2) inward FDI spillovers will strengthen the relationship between positive innovation quantity feedback and outward FDI while weakening the relationship of negative innovation quantity feedback; and (3) inward FDI spillovers will weaken the relationship between innovation quality feedback (both negative and positive) and outward FDI.

• Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Ruzo-Sanmartín, Emilio; Varela-Neira, Concepción & Tan, Qun (2024). How to successfully adapt distribution strategy in exporting? : the moderating effects of commitment and responsiveness. International Marketing Review. ISSN 0265-1335. 41(6), p. 1218–1241. doi: 10.1108/IMR-06-2023-0123. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: Drawing on the resource-based view, this study examines the effect of distribution adaptation on export performance. The study also examines the moderating role of responsiveness and commitment. Two distinct factors for commitment (i.e. managerial export commitment and financial export commitment) and two distinct factors for responsiveness (i.e. export customer responsiveness and export competitor responsiveness) are considered as moderators in the relationship between distribution adaptation and export performance. Design/methodology/approach: Using a Spanish governmental database of exporting firms, this study collected data from 208 firms to run the analysis. Findings: The results indicate that distribution adaptation has a positive impact on export performance. Findings also support the moderating roles of the two types of commitment and the two types of responsiveness. Managerial export commitment positively moderates the relationship, whereas financial export commitment plays a negative moderating role. Both export customer responsiveness and export competitor responsiveness have a positive moderating impact. Originality/value: To consider distribution adaptation as a distinct variable rather than mixing it with other elements of the marketing mix. This distinction facilitates a clearer comprehension of its unique contribution to export performance. Two distinct factors for commitment and two distinct factors for responsiveness are considered. This approach offers a more detailed analysis of how the different aspects of commitment and responsiveness moderate this relationship.

• Meng, Can; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Chen, Jieke (2024). Foreign divestments of IJVs and innovation output: The moderating role of inward technology licensing. Industrial Marketing Management. ISSN 0019-8501. 125(February), p. 105–117. doi: 10.1016/j.indmarman.2024.12.015. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study investigates how the innovation output is affected by foreign divestments in International Joint Ventures (IJVs) and explores whether this impact depends on the industry-specific context of the divested IJVs. In particular, we examine the moderating role of inward technology licensing, distinguishing between licensing-in foreign and domestic technology. The conceptual model is tested with data from the Chinese Industrial Enterprise Database and the Innovative Enterprise Database. Using PSM and DID method, the findings show that (1) foreign divestments of IJVs have negative impacts on innovation output, (2) licensing-in foreign technology weakens the negative impacts, and (3) licensing-in domestic technology strengthens the negative impacts.

• Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Tsinopoulos, Christos; Yan, Ji & Benito, Gabriel R.G. (2024). Finding the sweet spot : effects of exporting on the relationship between R&D investment and NPD performance. International Marketing Review. ISSN 0265-1335. 42(1), p. 35–63. doi: 10.1108/IMR-02-2024-0039. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: The aim of this research is twofold: (1) to investigate when the effect of R&D investment on New Product Development (NPD) performance peaks – the sweet spot and (2) to analyze the influence of firms’ export activities on where that spot is. Drawing on the knowledge-based view (KBV), we argue that export intensity and export experience lead to differential effects on how R&D investments are converted into new products. Design/methodology/approach: We test our conceptual framework using time lagged data and optimal-level analysis. The dataset consists of an unbalanced panel of 608,891 observations and 333,516 firms. Findings: The results support the expected inverted U-shaped relationship between R&D investment and NPD performance. They also show moderating effects of export intensity and experience. Export intensity enhances innovation processes by enabling firms to stretch the points at which R&D investments eventually taper off. In contrast, export experience improves firms’ ability to convert R&D investments into NPD performance. Our results demonstrate that, all else equal, firms with relatively higher export experience can spend less on R&D and still achieve higher levels of NPD performance. Originality/value: We contribute to the literature by investigating how export activities provide a valuable context for understanding the theoretical mechanisms that help explain the inverted U-shaped relationship between R&D investment and innovation. We show the effects of exporting activities on the precise points where the R&D investment–NPD performance relationship peaks, thereby identifying the optimal point within this nonlinear relationship.

• Tan, Qun & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2023). Should I stay or should I go? The influence of managerial self-interest on foreign exit decisions. Journal of Business Research. ISSN 0148-2963. 168(November), p. 1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114213. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Based on the agency theory and the social exchange theory, this study investigates how foreign affiliate (FA) managers can utilise two mechanisms that the principal adopts to deal with the agency problem of influencing the foreign divestment/non-divestment decision of the headquarters (HQ). Specifically, we examine whether and under which conditions FA managers’ self-interest affects the decision of the HQ to divest a foreign market. Using secondary and primary data collected from multiple informants in Chinese firms engaged in outward foreign direct investment (OFDI), we find that although the FA managers’ self-interest has no direct impact on the HQ’s foreign divestment decision, the HQ is less likely to divest the foreign market when the FA manager holds a high level of trust in the HQ. Furthermore, when the FA is locally embedded in the foreign host market, the manager’s self-interest has the strongest negative impact on the HQ’s foreign divestment decision.

• Li, Min; He, Xinming & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2023). Product development capabilities-based export channel selection and export performance. International Marketing Review. ISSN 0265-1335. 40(2), p. 385–411. doi: 10.1108/IMR-12-2022-0268. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: Drawing on the resource-based view and institutional theory, this study explores how firms select export channels to realise the value of their product development capabilities (PDC) and improve export performance by aligning PDC, entrepreneurial orientation (EO), cultural-cognitive institutional distance (CCID) and channel selection. Design/methodology/approach: This study adopted a quantitative design and used data collected from multiple respondents in 294 Chinese exporting ventures. Hypotheses were tested using logistic regression analysis and multiple regression analysis. Findings: The results of the study suggest that PDC plays a vital role in export channel decisions. The results also show that there is a three-way interaction between PDC, EO and CCID regarding export channel selection. More importantly, this study suggests that firms using export channels that align with PDC, contingent on EO and CCID, generate superior export performance. Originality/value: This study extends the export channel literature by looking at the different roles of important organisational capabilities (i.e. PDC and EO) on export channel selection. Further, it shows that firms need to align the exploitation of their PDC with the export channel selection, along with EO capabilities, and CCID to achieve better performance in the export market.

• Carballo-Penela, Adolfo; Ruzo-Sanmartín, Emilio & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2023). Does business commitment to sustainability increase job seekers' perceptions of organisational attractiveness? : the role of organisational prestige and cultural masculinity. Business Strategy and the Environment (BSE). ISSN 0964-4733. 32(8), p. 5521–5535. doi: 10.1002/bse.3434. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study analyses how recruiting messages showing commitment to sustainability influence job seekers' perceptions of organisational attractiveness. To address a call from prior research, we propose that organisational prestige mediates the positive relationship between commitment to sustainability and attractiveness. As job seekers from different cultures can have different responses to companies' information, the moderating role of the masculinity dimension of national culture is also examined. In a study of 412 job seekers from four different countries, experimental manipulation was used to assess perceptions of different recruiting messages containing information on business sustainability. Results support the proposed relationships. Theoretical and practical contributions include the integration of signalling and social identity theories to considering a wide variety of mechanisms which show how individuals are attracted to organisations and useful information for helping managers to recruit young talent. Using a sample of young part-time job seekers is a limitation of this work.

• Evers, Natasha; Ojala, Arto; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Criado-Rialp, Alex (2023). Unraveling business model innovation in firm internationalization: A systematic literature review and future research agenda. Journal of Business Research. ISSN 0148-2963. 158, p. 1–19. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.113659. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The international business literature has witnessed a rapid growth of studies examining business model innovation (BMI) in firm internationalization, particularly over the last decade. Despite this increased line of inquiry, the body of knowledge on BMI and firm internationalization remains largely fragmented and unsynthesized, thus compromising theoretical and empirical advancements in the field. Although past reviews have multiplied on BMI in the mainstream business literature, none have been conducted in the context of international business. The primary goal of this review is to synthesize and evaluate the research on BMI in international business and to propose a future research agenda. Accordingly, we take stock of the literature and critically assess and examine 70 peer-reviewed articles published between 1996 and 2021. This study contributes to the extant literature by capturing the current body of knowledge on this topic and further advances and cultivates the dialogue between BMI and international business. We provide greater clarification of the BMI construct by proposing more fine-grained BMI constructs to be used to advance theory and empirical testing in future IB research. We finally contribute to the literature by mapping out a future research agenda supported by an integrative framework to advance research at the interface of BMI and firm internationalization. Keywords: business model, business model innovation, internationalization, systematic literature review

• Wan, Chenxi; Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Lengler, Jorge & Tan, Qun (2023). Entry mode choice : a meta-analysis of antecedents and outcomes. MIR. Management International Review: journal of international business. ISSN 0938-8249. 63(2), p. 193–246. doi: 10.1007/s11575-022-00499-6. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The entry mode decision is a critical topic in international business. Several studies have tested the antecedents of entry mode choices and compared the outcomes after entry. However, the results reported in these studies are contradictory and difficult to explain. Furthermore, the reviews using qualitative approaches cannot statistically combine empirical results and fail to fully discuss these relationships. Additionally, the mediating effects remain unexamined in the existing studies. Drawing upon transaction cost economics and the resource-based view, this paper presents a meta-analysis that combines entry mode choices, antecedents and post-entry outcomes to address these issues. This meta-analysis is based on 1499 effect sizes from 230 published empirical studies. This study focuses on 15 antecedents as well as post-entry performance and survival of entry mode choices. In addition to bivariate relationships (i.e. how a single antecedent affects entry mode choices), the paper uses meta-analytic structural equation modelling to analyse the mediating effects of entry mode choices on the antecedent - outcome relationship.

• Li, Rebecca Yu; Sousa, Carlos M.P.; He, Xinming & Hu, Yansong (2022). Spinning straw into gold : innovation recycling, innovation sourcing modes, and innovation ability in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Product Innovation Management. ISSN 0737-6782. 39(5), p. 583–603. doi: 10.1111/jpim.12643. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  As innovation is inherently risky and uncertain, it is common for firms to suspend or abandon new product/service development projects that cannot achieve pre-defined objectives. Multiple cases exist where firms have attempted to resume the development of an innovative product or service after previously suspending or abandoning it prior to completion. Research on this important innovation recycling activity is surprisingly scarce, despite its critical role in mitigating risk in the context of high environmental uncertainty. We draw our inferences from Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where innovation resources are relatively limited and environmental uncertainty and institutional voids prevail, a context that encourages the use of innovation recycling. This study examines how innovation recycling influences a firm's innovation ability and the moderating impact of innovation sourcing modes using a knowledge-based view of the firm and arguments from transaction cost economics. We retrieved data from the World Bank Enterprise Survey and the Innovation Follow-up Survey of 1076 firms located in eight SSA countries (Ghana, Malawi, Namibia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia) spanning from 2011 to 2014 to test our conceptual model. Our findings show that (1) innovation recycling has a positive influence on a firm's innovation ability and (2) this relationship is moderated by different innovation sourcing modes. These findings enrich the theory and imply that firms operating in developing countries need to develop innovation recycling by focusing on sourcing knowledge within, rather than across, firm boundaries.

• Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Coelho, Filipe & Silva, Susana Costa (2022). Do goal orientations really influence performance? International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. ISSN 0959-0552. 51(2). doi: 10.1108/IJRDM-12-2021-0593. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: The creativity of retail employees seems to be of the utmost importance for ensuring the performance of organizations in service settings. This paper contributes to the existing theory by investigating the direct and indirect effects of goal orientations on the creativity and performance of retail employees. The authors propose a framework depicting the relationships between goal orientations and employee creativity and performance, including the intervening effects of self-efficacy and customer orientation. Design/methodology/approach: The study was conducted with retail frontline employees of a large retail bank in Portugal. The sample consists of 267 valid responses. Structural equations are used by applying the maximum likelihood method to test the conceptual framework. Findings: Results are broadly supportive of the hypotheses. Learning orientation is, directly and indirectly, related to creativity, but only indirectly to performance. As to performance orientation, it is indirectly related to creativity through self-efficacy and customer orientation, and directly as well as indirectly, to performance. The authors investigate the extent to which the effects of goal orientations on creativity and performance are mediated by self-regulatory mechanisms, namely self-efficacy, and customer orientation. Originality/value: The results recognize that learning and performance goals are neither mutually exclusive nor contradictory, which collide with past empirical evidence showing that learning goals are generally associated with more favorable outcomes and performance goals with more negative or equivocal ones. These outcomes underscore the need and relevance for managers to foster both goal orientations to promote the creativity and performance of retail employees, representing a particularly salient issue in retail businesses characterized by significant interpersonal interactions. Keywords: creativity, performance, retail frontline employees, service retail

• Ojala, Arto; Evers, Natasha & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2022). Digitalisation, digital services and companies' internationalisation : a literature review. In Khare, Anshuman; Ojala, Arto & Baber, William W. (Ed.), Sustainable international business models in a digitally transforming world. Routledge. ISSN 9781003195986. p. 3–17. doi: 10.4324/9781003195986-2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The forces of volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity (VUCA) in today’s world are shaping businesses and calling into question the wisdom of existing business models. VUCA challenges businesses to digitalize and transform in ways they had not contemplated before. This book looks at how successful businesses have revitalized and innovated their business models. It illustrates through cases how these businesses have adapted to new forms of globalization through the lens of Business Model Innovation (BMI) theories in a digital world. This book’s chapters are divided into three sections. The first section examines the existing literature, the second section focuses on business processes and behaviour, and lastly the third section presents four case studies of sustainable international businesses from sectors such the fashion and digital services industry. Paying attention to business decisions and outcomes, the contributors critically examine which theories and practices would be most applicable for a digitally transforming world. This book provides insights that will interest researchers and academics in the fields of sustainable business, organizational change, and digital transformation, amongst others. Its observations into sustainable digital transformation may also interest business leaders and consultants.

• Tan, Qun & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2022). How do international performance, marketing capabilities and market turbulence jointly influence a foreign exit decision? In Larimo, Jorma; Arte, Pratik; Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Ghauri, Pervez N. & Mata, José (Ed.), Research handbook on foreign exit, relocation and re-entry : theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISSN 9781800887138. p. 136–158. doi: 10.4337/9781800887145.00014. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This definitive Research Handbook explores the restructuring strategies of globalised firms, bringing together a wide range of topics from export exit, subsidiary divestment and market re-entry to relocation, offshoring and backshoring.

• Larimo, Jorma; Arte, Pratik; Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Ghauri, Pervez & Mata, José (2022). Taking stock of foreign exit, relocation and re-entry : current research and future directions. In Larimo, Jorma; Arte, Pratik; Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Ghauri, Pervez N. & Mata, José (Ed.), Research handbook on foreign exit, relocation and re-entry : theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISSN 9781800887138. p. 370–384. doi: 10.4337/9781800887145.00026. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This definitive Research Handbook explores the restructuring strategies of globalised firms, bringing together a wide range of topics from export exit, subsidiary divestment and market re-entry to relocation, offshoring and backshoring.

• Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Yan, Ji; Gomes, Emanuel & Lengler, Jorge (2021). Export activity, R&D investment, and foreign ownership : does it matter for productivity? International Marketing Review. ISSN 0265-1335. 38(3), p. 613–639. doi: 10.1108/IMR-03-2020-0045. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The paper examines the impact of export activity on productivity and how this effect is moderated by R&D investment and foreign ownership. Design/methodology/approach: A time-lag effect is taken into account when examining the proposed model. Data are collected from the Annual Industrial Survey of the National Bureau of Statistics of China. A dataset containing 117,340 firms across the sample period (2001–2007) are used to test the hypotheses. Findings: The results indicate that while R&D investment plays a significant role in strengthening the positive effect of export activity on a firm's productivity, foreign ownership surprisingly has a negative moderating role. Originality/value: Scholarly interest in the links between export activity and productivity is on the rise. However, the bulk of research has been focused on understanding the effects of export activity on productivity at the country or industry level. Little has been done at the firm level. Another gap in the literature is that the mechanism through which the impact of export activity can be leveraged to enhance the firm's productivity has been largely ignored. To address these issues, the study adopts the learning-by-exporting theory to examine the relationship between export and productivity at the firm-level and how R&D investment and foreign ownership may explain how learning can be leveraged to enhance the firm's productivity. Finally, these relationships are examined in the context of firms from an emerging market, China, which is especially relevant for the learning-by-exporting argument used in this study.

• Sousa, Carlos M.P.; He, Xinming; Lengler, Jorge & Tang, Linhan (2021). Foreign market re-entry : a review and future research directions. Journal of International Management. ISSN 1075-4253. 27(2), p. 1–21. doi: 10.1016/j.intman.2021.100848. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Foreign market re-entry has increasingly attracted academic interest. However, different streams of research have developed largely independently of each other, which has hindered theory development and practical advancement in the field. By reviewing 45 relevant articles in international business and related disciplines between 1996 and 2020, this study provides a systematic review and analysis of the literature on re-entry. In addition, a framework is developed to direct future research efforts. Following the logic of ‘Antecedents-Phenomenon-Consequences’ and focusing on the time dimension, this study enables better understanding of the re-entry phenomenon and provides recommendations for future research in this area. Keywords: re-entry, review, exit, foreign market, antecedents, consequences

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Tan, Qun (2021). Looking back to move forward : an overview of foreign divestment decisions. In Mellahi, Kamel; Meyer, Klaus; Narula, Rajneesh; Surdu, Irina & Verbeke, Alain (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of International Business Strategy. Oxford University Press. ISSN 9780198868378. p. 338–355. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The present volume discusses the progress made in progress made in the theory and practice of international business (IB) strategy in the last few decades. The book captures the differences in motivations and decision-making processes between smaller and larger firms, private, family and state-owned, emerging or developed market multinational enterprises (MNEs). The book highlights how the increasingly uncertain conditions in the IB environment demand superior firm-level capabilities for MNEs to achieve and maintain long-run competitive advantages. We elaborate on the links between international strategy and the social responsibilities of the firm in its, often differing, host market contexts, including the deployment of effective and ethical human resource practices in international markets. Most importantly perhaps, this handbook lays out how the classic principles of international competitive strategy are transformed in today’s markets, in great part due to digitalization, and provides suggestions about how MNEs can develop IB strategies to respond to these transformations. The implications of such discussions for IB strategy and practice are becoming ever more profound and will likely influence the next generation of IB scholars and practitioners.

• López-López, Vicente; Antelo, Susana Iglesias & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2020). Firm and industry effects : the importance of sample design. European Business Review. ISSN 0955-534X. 33(3), p. 491–504. doi: 10.1108/EBR-02-2020-0038. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: This paper aims to examine how sample design affects the relative importance of firm and industry factors in explaining performance variations. Design/methodology/approach: Using a sample of 14,204 Spanish firms over a 10-year time frame, this study uses partial sensitivity analysis to examine the biases in results as a consequence of three methodological relevant concerns: outliers, industry classification and period. Findings: Results indicate that the industry effect, supported by the industrial organization theory, has been underestimated in the empirical tests. Originality/value: This study examines the biases in results as a consequence of three methodological relevant concerns (outliers, sector classification and period), which have not been sufficiently studied to date. Moreover, the study provides some new evidence favourable to the Industrial Organization (IO) perspective, which could have been biased and underestimated by the literature, as most of the analyses do not consider the methodological issues studied in this paper. Keywords: industry effect, sensitivity analysis, firm effect, sample design, performance

• Tan, Qun & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2020). Giving a fish or teaching to fish? : exploring the effects of home-country governmental support on foreign exit decisions. International Marketing Review. ISSN 0265-1335. 37(6), p. 1181–1203. doi: 10.1108/IMR-03-2019-0104. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose – To help firms with their international operations, governments often create policies and support mechanisms, but its influence on the firm’s exit decision has so far been ignored. Hence, the purpose of this study is to examine the impact of home-country governmental support on the firm’s exit decision. Design/methodology/approach – The authors test their conceptual model using multiple informants as well as secondary data from China. The sample consists of 360 valid questionnaires from 180 firms. Binary logistics regression is used to test the conceptual framework. Findings – By demonstrating that resource-based and institutional constructs are highly dependent, the authors show how home-country governmental support interacts with the foreign affiliate’s past performance to explain the decision to remain or exit a foreign market. The results indicate that while governmental financial support reduces the likelihood of exiting a poorly performing business in the foreign market, governmental non-financial support surprisingly has an opposite effect. Originality/value – While there has been an increasing number of firms exiting foreign markets, this area of research is still limited. The study also contributes to the literature by focusing on home-country governmental financial and non-financial support to explain the firm’s exit decision – an issue that has been ignored and is expected to be particularly relevant for firms from emerging economies. Keywords: Foreign exit decision, Governmental support, Financial support, Non-financial support, Past performance.

• Carballo-Penela, Adolfo; Ruzo-Sanmartín, Emilio & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2020). Influence of business commitment to sustainability, perceived value fit, and gender in job seekers pursuit intentions : a cross-country moderated mediation analysis. Sustainability. 12(11), p. 1–18. doi: 10.3390/su12114395. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Recruitment messages can help organizations to attract talent by influencing job seekers perceived fit with the company. As sustainability issues have become more relevant for 21st century citizens, messages communicating companies’ commitment to sustainability can send information that could influence young job seekers perceived fit with their future organizations. This between-subjects study analyses the influence of six messages showing business commitment to sustainability on job seekers pursuit intentions, considering a sample of 265 job applicants from three countries (Spain, Kazakhstan, and Germany). We are particularly interested in studying the role of perceived value fit as a mediating mechanism, as well as the moderating role of gender. Results obtained from a between-subjects factorial design confirm that different actions showing business commitment to sustainability positively affect job seekers’ job pursuit intentions. Our findings also show that the importance of every message is different depending on the studied country. The obtained results confirm that recruitment messages showing business commitment to sustainability influence job seekers’ pursuit intensions by increasing the perceived fit between job seekers’ and business values. Finally, results show the moderating role of prospective employees’ gender in the proposed model. Keywords: corporate sustainability, recruitment messages, job seekers, job pursuit intentions, gender, between-subjects, experimental design, environmental sustainability, social sustainability

• Coelho, Filipe J.; Evanschitzky, Heiner; Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Olya, Hossein & Taheri, Babak (2020). Control mechanisms, management orientations, and the creativity of service employees : symmetric and asymmetric modeling. Journal of Business Research. ISSN 0148-2963. 132(August), p. 753–764. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.10.055. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Customer needs in service settings are idiosyncratic. Responding to these unique needs requires frontline employees to be creative. Little research looks at the drivers of service employee creativity. We aim to fill that void by assessing two potential key creativity drivers, control mechanisms and management orientations. We collected data from frontline employees and their managers and used multilevel mediation modeling, configurational modeling and analysis of necessary conditions. Multilevel analysis revealed that the influence of process and social controls on employee creativity are fully mediated by self-control, whereas the effects of cultural control are partially mediated. The effect of the service orientation of management on employee creativity is partially mediated by self-control, whereas the effect of profit orientation is fully mediated. Causal models from employee control mechanisms and management orientation configurations provide a deeper insight of sufficient conditions leading to employee creativity. Necessary employee control mechanisms and management orientations are identified. Keywords: creativity, control mechanisms, management orientations, service industries, frontline employees

• Aguzzoli, Roberta; Lengler, Jorge; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Benito, Gabriel R G (2020). Here we go again : a case study on re-entering a foreign market. British Journal of Management. ISSN 1045-3172. 32(2), p. 416–434. doi: 10.1111/1467-8551.12407. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Globalization has motivated firms to expand into foreign markets, but internationalization is inherently dynamic. Many firms have exited foreign markets for various reasons, but some later decide to re‐enter those same markets. Based on a case study of a Brazilian multinational's activities in Mexico, this study contributes to the literature on re‐entry decisions of multinational enterprises and their outcomes, focusing on the roles of institutional voids and the experiences of decision‐makers during such processes. The findings suggest that companies learn from their mistakes and reconsider how they approach re‐entry and the resources that may need to be mobilized. However, the learning process is not straightforward as it is clouded by international knowledge myopia. This study highlights how multiple actors and considerations influence re‐entry events.

• Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Li, Rebecca Yu & He, Xinming (2020). The impact of exploitation and exploration on export sales growth : the moderating role of domestic and international collaborations. Journal of International Marketing. ISSN 1069-031X. 28(4), p. 1–20. doi: 10.1177/1069031X20963617. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study examines the short- and long-term implications of the impact of exploitation and exploration on export sales growth. It also explores the moderating role of external collaborations by differentiating between domestic collaborations and international collaborations. The authors tested their conceptual model with data from the U.K. Community Innovation Survey (2010–2016). Using different time lags for exploitation and exploration, the findings indicate that the impact varies over time. Specifically, they reveal that the effect of exploitation is negative in the long term but positive in the short term, while exploration has no significant effect in the short term but a positive influence on export sales growth in the long term. Similarly, the moderating effect of domestic and international collaborations has been found to vary over time. The authors conclude with a discussion of the theoretical and practical implications. Keywords: exploitation, exploration, export sales growth, domestic collaboration, international collaboration

• Gomes, Emanuel; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Vendrell-Herrero, Ferran (2020). International marketing agility : conceptualization and research agenda. International Marketing Review. ISSN 0265-1335. 37(2), p. 261–272. doi: 10.1108/IMR-07-2019-0171. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The aim of this paper is to conceptualize the notion of International Marketing Agility. The approach adopted is to review and create a synopsis of the existing body of research on strategic agility and develop a conceptualization on how international marketing agility (IMA) should be analyzed International marketing agility is an emerging concept driven largely by rapid changes in global markets. There is a growing need for exporting SMEs and multinational enterprises to consider IMA as a means of building competitive advantage in foreign markets. While the conceptual development presented in this paper is not exhaustive, our model highlights important research avenues in IMA that need exploring. This article examines an emerging concept in international marketing that serves as a platform to cope with the changes taking place in this fast-changing global environment. A framework is proposed where we conceptualize IMA as a process triggered by agile logic (a non-conformist and open mental stance), and facilitated by agile learning (being able to search and interpret data), to cause agile actions (being able to commit, co-ordinate and respond quickly with flexibility to ever-changing conditions).

• Tsinopoulos, Christos; Yan, Ji & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2019). Abandoning innovation activities and performance: The moderating role of openness. Research Policy. ISSN 0048-7333. 48(6), p. 1399–1411. doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2019.02.005. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Firms are encouraged to continually initiate innovation activities as part of their new product development processes and to be open to the use of external knowledge sources. Yet, many are abandoned. Openness to external knowledge sources and the experience of abandoning innovation activities are, therefore, becoming a part of an organization’s reality and innovation strategy. In this paper, we aim to explore how the experience of having abandoned an innovation activity can affect innovation performance and the role two key dimensions of openness, external search breadth and formal innovation collaboration breadth, play. Using data from the UK Innovation Survey, we find that the experience of having abandoned an innovation activity leads to improved innovation performance and that this is negatively moderated by the two dimensions of openness. When external search breadth is high, i.e. when an organization engages with a higher number of different types of knowledge sources, the link between abandoning innovation activities and innovation performance weakens. Similarly, when formal innovation collaboration breadth is high, i.e. the breadth of a firm’s formal collaboration relationships is high, the link between abandoning innovation activities and innovation performance also weakens. We conclude by discussing the theoretical and practical implications of our findings. Keywords: abandoning innovation activities, openness, technology management, innovation performance

• Hughes, Mathew; Hughes, Paul; Yan, Ji & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2019). Marketing as an investment in shareholder value. British Journal of Management. ISSN 1045-3172. 30(4), p. 943–965. doi: 10.1111/1467-8551.12284. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We present resource-based and capability-based arguments of marketing investment in-tensity to offer a strategic view of marketing as an investment in shareholder value. Wefind that marketing investment intensity has a U-shaped quadratic effect on shareholdervalue creation (Tobin’s q) that calls for marketing investment to be protected and in-creased, not surrendered. We show how marketing investments interact with investmentsin R&D, human capital and operations to reveal how strategic co-investments can alterthe shareholder value of marketing. Finally, we show how competitive intensity and fail-ings in the firm’s investment productivity (its ability to convert investment expenditureinto sales) point to malaise in the firm’s own strategic architecture as a fault for perceivedpoor returns from marketing investments. Our findings suggest that marketing investmentshould not be scapegoated when its contributions to shareholder value are not as expected.When invested in strategically and in combination with other investments, marketing canunlock exciting improvements in shareholder value.

• Chen, Jieke; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & He, Xinming (2019). Nonlinear effects of dynamic export pricing on export sales : a longitudinal investigation. Journal of International Marketing. ISSN 1069-031X. 27(3), p. 60–78. doi: 10.1177/1069031X19845853. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Little is known in the literature about dynamic export pricing, and particularly how the external environment interacts with a firm’s export pricing decisions and its long-term effect on export sales. Therefore, this study develops a longitudinal framework to examine the quadratic effect of dynamic export pricing and its interaction with customer/competitive turbulence on export sales. By employing product-level longitudinal data, the authors also estimate the lagged effect from past dynamic export pricing and export sales while simultaneously controlling for endogeneity and unknown firm heterogeneity. The results indicate that dynamic export pricing appears to have inverted quadratic effects on export sales; this quadratic relationship is moderated by customer turbulence and competitive turbulence. The authors also focus on the changes of the curve and shifts of the turning point and delineate the fit lines that pinpoint the optimal dynamic export pricing in different export markets. Finally, previous actions and outcomes significantly influence the following year’s export sales, which explains the long-term relationships. Keywords: dynamic export pricing strategy, dynamic panel model, export sales, longitudinal study

• Santos, Maria Céu; Coelho, Filipe; Gomes, Jorge F. S. & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2019). Personal values and the features of psychological contracts. International Journal of Organizational Analysis. ISSN 1934-8835. 27(4), p. 1111–1123. doi: 10.1108/IJOA-08-2018-1507. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: This paper aims to investigate how personal values relate to the psychological contract employees establish with their employers. Design/methodology/approach: The sample consisted of 223 frontline employees from a major Portuguese company. The paper used stepwise regressions analysis to test the research hypotheses. Findings: Collectivistic-oriented values were generally related to psychological contract features such as long time frame, lower tangibility, flexibility, inequality and collective regulation. Conversely, individualistic-oriented values were generally associated with a short time frame and a more tangible, stable, equal and individually regulated type of contract with a narrow scope. Research limitations/implications: This study uses cross-sectional data collected from a single Portuguese company. While common method bias could potentially affect the results, various procedural remedies were used to control for it. Finally, the study relied on stepwise regression, which is a data-driven approach. Practical implications: The study supports the contentions that internal dispositions are related to psychological contracts. Originality/value: This paper innovates by exploring how employees’ personal values are associated with the psychological contract from a feature-oriented approach. In addition, this study was carried out in Portugal, highlighting the importance of exploring existing models and theories in different cultural contexts. Keywords: employment relationships, psychological contract

• Chen, Jieke; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & He, Xinming (2019). Export market re-entry : time-out period and price/quality dynamisms. Journal of World Business. ISSN 1090-9516. 54(2), p. 154–168. doi: 10.1016/j.jwb.2019.01.001. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The relevance of nonlinear internationalisation regarding exporting activities and the performance post re-entry remains little understood. This study develops a two-stage model to explain the process of exporting firms’ exit and re-entry decisions regarding individual export markets. Specifically, it investigates the dynamic relationships between exit and re-entry stages by focusing on the time-out period. This study empirically tests the decision model by employing export data from the Chinese Customs for the period 2000-2009. The results indicate the importance of the exit stage in shaping re-entry decisions, price/quality ratio and export performance, where time-out period plays a significant role in varying these effects. Keywords: market exit, market re-entry, price/quality ratio, time-out period, export performance, two-stage model

• Tan, Qun & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2019). Why poor performance is not enough for a foreign exit : the importance of innovation capability and international experience. MIR. Management International Review: journal of international business. ISSN 0938-8249. 59(3), p. 465–498. doi: 10.1007/s11575-019-00384-9. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  More and more firms are entering foreign markets. However, while research on international entry and expansion has been a particularly important topic in the literature, there has been a dearth of empirical research explaining firms’ exit decisions from foreign markets. To address this gap in the literature, this study examines the exit behavior of emerging market MNCs. More specifically, we explore the firms’ exit behavior in the context of the headquarters-foreign affiliate relationship. To this end, this study develops a model whereby the impact of performance on the firms’ exit decision is moderated by innovation capability and international experience. Using secondary and primary data collected from multiple respondents from Chinese outward foreign direct investment firms, the findings indicate that innovation capability moderates the relationship between performance and exit decision. However, and contrary to expectations, the study suggests that incremental and radical innovation have an opposite contingent effect on the performance-exit relationship. In addition, the moderating effect of innovation capability on the performance-exit relationship was further moderated by international experience. Implications of these findings along with the limitations of the study are discussed. Keywords: performance, foreign exit decision, incremental innovation capabilities, radical innovation capabilities, international experience

• Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Yu, Li & He, Xinming (2018). Antecedents, marketing capabilities contingencies and performance consequences of innovative imitation orientation : a resource orchestration perspective. In Leonidou, Leonidas; Katsikeas, Constantine; Samiee, Saeed & Aykol, Bilge (Ed.), Advances in Global Marketing: A Research Anthology. Springer. ISSN 9783319613840. p. 169–186. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-61385-7_8. Full text in Research Archive
• Tan, Qun & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2018). Performance and business relatedness as drivers of exit decision : a study of MNCs from an emerging country. Global Strategy Journal. ISSN 2042-5791. 8(4), p. 612–634. doi: 10.1002/gsj.1170. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research Summary: This study examines the exit behavior of emerging market MNCs in the context of the parent company (PC)‐foreign affiliate (FA) relationship. Specifically, we consider business relatedness as a moderating variable and examine its impact on the relationship between an FA’s international performance and its exit decision from a foreign market. Our results, based on data collected from multiple informants in 180 Chinese firms, indicate that product relatedness and intangible resource relatedness have different moderating impacts on the FA performance‐FA exit decision relationship. Implications of these findings, along with the limitations of the study, are discussed. Managerial Summary: Although the research on international entry and expansion is particularly important, an aspect that has been largely ignored in the literature is the exit behavior of firms. This study examines whether the extent to which a foreign subsidiary is similar to its parent's core business may influence the firm's exit decision. The findings indicate that managers are more likely to exit a poorly performing FA if there is a high (vs. low) level of product relatedness between the FA and its PC's core business. The results also suggest that intangible resource relatedness exerts a different contingent effect on the FA performance‐FA exit relationship than does product relatedness.

• Coelho, Filipe J.; Lages, Cristiana R. & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2018). Personality and the creativity of frontline service employees : linear and curvilinear effects. International Journal of Human Resource Management. ISSN 0958-5192. 29(17), p. 2580–2607. doi: 10.1080/09585192.2016.1255982. Full text in Research Archive
• Gomes, Emanuel; Vendrell-Herrero, Ferran; Mellahi, Kamel; Angwin, Duncan & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2018). Testing the self-selection theory in high corruption environments : evidence from African SMEs. International Marketing Review. ISSN 0265-1335. 35(5), p. 733–759. doi: 10.1108/IMR-03-2017-0054. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: Whilst substantial evidence from low-corruption, developed market environments supports the view that more productive firms are more likely to export, there has been little research into analysing the link between productivity and exports in high corruption, developing market environments. The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, to test the premise of self-selection theory whether the association between productivity and export is maintained in high-corruption environments, and second to identify other variables explaining export activity in high-corruption contexts, including cluster networks and firms’ competences. Design/methodology/approach: The authors draw on the World Bank Enterprise survey to undertake a cross-section analysis including 1,233 small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) located in nine African countries. The advantage of this database is that it contains information about the level of perceived corruption at firm level. Logistic regressions are performed for the full sample and for subsamples of firms in high- and low-corruption environments. Findings: The findings demonstrate that the self-selection theory only applies to low-corruption environments, whereas in high-corruption environments, alternative factors such as cluster networks and outward-looking competences (OLC) exert a stronger influence on the exporting activity of African SMEs. Research limitations/implications: This research contributes to the theory as it provides evidence that contradicts the validity of self-selection theory in high-corruption environments. The findings would benefit from further longitudinal investigation. Practical implications: African SMEs need to consider cluster networks and OLC as important strategic factors that might enhance their international competitiveness. Originality/value: The criticism of the self-selection theory is distinctive in the literature and has important implications for future research. The authors show that the contextualisation of existing theories matters and this opens a research avenue for further more sensitive contextualisation of existing theories in developing economies. Keywords: self-selection, cluster, networking, productivity, corruption, exports, World Bank Enterprise survey, African SMEs, outward-looking competences

• Tsinopoulos, Christos; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Yan, Ji (2018). Proces s innovation: open innovation and the moderating role of the motivation to achieve legitimacy. Journal of Product Innovation Management. ISSN 0737-6782. 35(1), p. 27–48. doi: 10.1111/jpim.12374. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Global competition has increased the pressure for firms to develop new and efficient processes in ways that are perceived to be legitimate. At the same time, there has been a realization that engaging with open innovation can improve competitiveness. Our study aims to address two research questions: (a) How does engaging with open innovation support an organization's process innovation? and (b) How does the motivation to achieve legitimacy affect the relationship between engaging with open innovation and process innovation? We use arguments from the resource‐based view to explain how open innovation influences an organization's likelihood of introducing new processes. We then use arguments from institutional theory to explain how the motivation to achieve legitimacy moderates this relationship. We test our conceptual model using data from the European Community Innovation Survey administered by the U.K. government. Our findings and theoretical development support the notion that engagement with open innovation will increase the likelihood of introducing new processes and that the motivation to achieve legitimacy will affect this relationship. However, this moderating effect will be different depending on how engagement takes place. It will be positive on co‐operation with external parties, and negative on the use of information. Therefore, when organizations co‐operate with external parties and are motivated to achieve legitimacy, the likelihood of introducing a new process will increase. However, the effect is opposite in the case of use of external information. These findings contribute to the understanding of the relationship between open and process innovation.

• Li, Min; He, Xinming & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2017). A review of the empirical research on export channel selection between 1979 and 2015. International Business Review. ISSN 0969-5931. 26(2), p. 303–323. doi: 10.1016/j.ibusrev.2016.09.001. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Export channel selection is an important strategy for exporting firms. Over the last 45 years, there have been a number of studies investigating the antecedents and outcomes of this strategy. However, no single study systematically reviews the findings in this field. In order to address this gap, we review the literature on export channel selection up to 2015 and analyse findings on the determinants and/or consequences of export channel selection. Our review shows that in general export channel selection remains underexplored. We identify a number of issues in the current studies, including lacking knowledge of performance implication of channel selection, missing theoretical bases, weaknesses of research methods. Based on these, this review provides future research directions for development in export channel selection research.

• Taheri, Babak; Coelho, Filipe J.; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Evanschitzky, Heiner (2017). Mood regulation, customer participation, and customer value creation in hospitality services. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. ISSN 0959-6119. 29(12), p. 3063–3081. doi: 10.1108/IJCHM-07-2016-0389. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: Customers play a key role in value creation. Not surprisingly, research has investigated customers’ motivations to engage in the creation of value. Thus, this study aims to assess the link between mood-regulatory processes and customer participation in value creation. Design/methodology/approach: This study develops a model that relates mood-regulatory processes to customer participation and customer value creation, and tests it with a sample of 419 hotel customers, using partial least squares estimation. Findings: It is found that mood clarity relates directly with customer relational value; mood monitoring relates directly with customer participation as well as directly and indirectly with customer economic and relational value; and mood repair relates directly with customer participation and customer economic value, as well as indirectly with customer economic and relational value. Research limitations/implications: This is a cross-sectional study limited only to hotels in Iran. This is the first study to evaluate the relationship between mood regulation with customer participation and value creation. Hospitality service organizations interested in promoting customer participation may consider mood as a segmentation criterion. Originality/value: Value creation theory was applied to identify the relationship among customer mood regulation, participation, economic value and relational value, as it is first attempted in the hospitality studies. Keywords: relational value, customer participation, economic value, mood regulatory

• Coelho, Filipe; Lages, Cristiana R. & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2016). The relationship between personality and the creativity of frontline employees : evidence from services. In Groza, Mark D. & Ragland, Charles B. (Ed.), Marketing challenges in a turbulent business environment : proceedings of the 2014 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) world marketing congress. Springer. ISSN 9783319194288. p. 589–590. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-19428-8_147. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Despite employee creativity being paramount in organizational innovation, the soft (i.e. people) innovation side has received less attention (Brenton and Levin 2012). This study aims to remedy this lack of attention to the soft side of innovation by investigating the relationship between employees’ personality traits and their creativity. While this relationship has received some research attention, past research has mostly focused on the link between the Five Factor model and creativity. Since the Five Factor model of personality has been criticized for providing a limited account of an individual’s personality (see Block 1995; Paunonen and Jackson 2000), this study addresses this criticism by considering additional personality traits recently investigated in the service literature as determinants of employee behaviour. These other traits comprise competitiveness, materialism, need for learning, and need for activity (see Brown et al. 2002; Harris et al. 2005). Moreover, we predict that personality traits exert differentiated effects on creativity in this study’s setting (i.e. services) when compared to other settings. In a services setting, frontline employees are frequently responsible for the first and, many times, the only interaction with the customer (Hartline et al. 2000; Lages and Piercy 2012) and customers’ needs are quite heterogeneous, implying that satisfying customers requires flexibility from employees (Dubinsky et al. 1986). These specificities suggest that findings on the effects of personality on creativity obtained in other settings may not hold in services. Finally, while past research has focused on linear effects, this study examines the existence of non-linear effects between personality traits and creativity. The results not only indicate that the additional personality traits to the Five Factor model have an impact on creativity, but also that some traits’ effects differ from those obtained in studies conducted in other settings such as arts and science. Lastly, the findings also show that five personality traits have non-linear effects on creativity. Keywords: creativity, personality, service employees, linear, non-linear and curvilinear effects

• Lengler, Jorge F. B.; Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Perin, Marcelo Gattermann; Sampaio, Cláudio Hoffmann & Martínez-López, Francisco J. (2016). The antecedents of export performance of Brazilian small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) : the non-linear effects of customer orientation. International Small Business Journal. ISSN 0266-2426. 34(5), p. 701–727. doi: 10.1177/0266242615588837. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This article examines the determinants of customer orientation and the quadratic effects of customer orientation on export performance. The relationship between customer orientation and export performance has been assumed to have a linear relationship, neglecting the possibility of non-linear relationships. While most studies have been conducted in developed countries, we test our model in Brazil, an emerging market economy. The findings suggest that technology intensity and competitive intensity are key determinants in explaining success in an export market. Our findings also indicate that the relationship between customer orientation and export performance is quadratic (U-shaped) rather than linear. The implications of these findings are discussed. Keywords: competitive intensity, customer orientation, export performance, non-linear relationship, technology intensity

• Chen, Jieke; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & He, Xinming (2016). The determinants of export performance: a review of the literature 2006-2014. International Marketing Review. ISSN 0265-1335. 33(5), p. 626–670. doi: 10.1108/IMR-10-2015-0212. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to synthesize and evaluate recent studies on determinants of export performance. Design/methodology/approach: Using a vote-counting technique this paper reviews 124 papers published between 2006 and 2014 to assess the determinants of export performance. Findings: The results indicate that significant progress has been made during these nine years and that: numerous new determinants are identified, data quality and statistical biases have received considerable attention, and interaction and indirect relationships are considered. However, at the same time, the research of export performance is still limited by a lack of synthetic theoretical basis, inconsistent empirical test results, and insufficiency in the research framework and statistical methodologies. Originality/value: Export performance has received increasing attention over recent decades, but the area is still characterized by fragmentation and diversity hindering theoretical and practical development. This paper integrates the findings of recent studies on export performance and provides further discussion from both theoretical and methodological aspects, and points out the directions for future research. Keywords: export, export performance, literature review, external factors, internal factors, export markets

• Tan, Qun & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2015). A framework for understanding firms’ foreign exit behavior. In Zou, Shaoming; Xu, Hui & Shi, Linda Hui (Ed.), Entrepreneurship in International Marketing. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. ISSN 9781784414481. p. 223–238. doi: 10.1108/S1474-797920140000025010. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Although research on foreign market entry and expansion behavior has attracted significant interest in the literature, there is a general lack of research (either conceptual or empirical) on the exit behavior of international companies. To address this issue, the authors develop a conceptual framework to understand firms’ foreign exit behavior. The objective is to lay the conceptual foundation for subsequent empirical research in this area. A series of research propositions have been advanced that can guide hypothesis generation for future research. Keywords: exit behavior, performance, international company, conceptual framework

• Rodrigues, Luiza Cristina Alencar; Coelho, Filipe J. & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2015). Control mechanisms and goal orientations : evidence from frontline service employees. European Journal of Marketing. ISSN 0309-0566. 49(3/4), p. 350–371. doi: 10.1108/EJM-01-2014-0008. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the influence of organizational controls, both formal and informal, over the goal orientations of frontline employees. The goal orientations of employees, namely, in frontline settings, have been associated with a number of positive outcomes for organizations. Not surprisingly, past research has identified several personal characteristics with an influence on goal orientations. However, the contextual variables that influence employees’ goal orientations remain unspecified. Design/methodology/approach: The authors distributed approximately 1,350 questionnaires through the frontline employees of a Brazilian bank and obtained 296 usable responses. The questionnaire relies on previously validated scales. The final confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) obtained a good fit and provided evidence of scale validity. Findings: Overall, our results suggest that both formal and informal control mechanisms play a significant role explaining employees’ goal orientation. However, informal control mechanisms were found to play a more significant role explaining employees’ goal orientation. Research limitations/implications: This paper relies on employees from a single organization. In addition, it has a cross-sectional nature. The procedural and statistical remedies employed in this study suggest that method variance is not a concern. Practical implications: The results show that managers may resort to control mechanisms to influence the goal orientations of frontline service employees in a manner that is consistent with organizational objectives. Originality/value: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that examines the impact of control mechanisms on employees’ goal orientation. Keywords: control systems, employee attitudes

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Bradley, Frank (2015). Cultural distance and psychic distance : a theoretical model and empirical assessment. In Spotts, Harlan E. (Eds.), Assessing the different roles of marketing theory and practice in the jaws of economic uncertainty : proceedings of the 2004 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) annual conference. Springer. ISSN 9783319118451. p. 92–97. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-11845-1_36. Full text in Research Archive
• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Tan, Qun (2015). Exit from a foreign market : do poor performance, strategic fit, cultural distance, and international experience matter? Journal of International Marketing. ISSN 1069-031X. 23(4), p. 84–104. doi: 10.1509/jim.15.0003. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Although international entry and expansion has been a particularly important topic in the literature, there has been little research effort to explain firms’ exit decisions from foreign markets. Drawing on the notion of fit theory together with moderation contingent logic, this study investigates the effects of international performance and internal strategic fit as well as the moderating impact of cultural distance and international experience on the firm's exit decision. The results indicate that strategic misfit and poor international performance have a detrimental effect on the firm's survival in the foreign market. Furthermore, the results suggest that cultural distance moderates the impact of the internal strategic fit and international performance on the exit decision. In addition, the authors find a significant three-way interaction between international performance, cultural distance, and international experience. Using data collected from multiple informants in Chinese outward foreign direct investment firms, this study generates new insights for academics and practitioners. Keywords: international performance, internal strategic fit, cultural distance, international experience, international exit

• Tan, Qun & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2015). Leveraging marketing capabilities into competitive advantage and export performance. International Marketing Review. ISSN 0265-1335. 32(1), p. 78–102. doi: 10.1108/IMR-12-2013-0279. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: By using the dynamic capabilities (DC) theory and the theory of competitive advantage, the purpose of this paper is to develop a framework to investigate the role of marketing capabilities on the firm’s export performance. Specifically, this framework depicts the consequences of marketing capabilities and focuses on the relationships among marketing capabilities, competitive advantage, and export performance. Design/methodology/approach: The authors conduct a meta-analysis of the literature on marketing capabilities and use multivariate analyses to test the framework. Findings: The study revealed that competitive advantage has an important mediating role in the relationship between marketing capabilities and export performance. Specifically, the authors found that two types of competitive advantage (i.e. low-cost advantage and differentiation advantage) positively mediate the effect of marketing capabilities on export performance. Originality/value: Although research on marketing capabilities is still in its early infancy, the study provides a base from which future work can be developed. The authors also contribute to the literature by examining the mediating role of competitive advantage in the marketing capability-export performance relationship, thereby offering new insights into how and why marketing capabilities play a crucial role in explaining the firm’s export performance. Keywords: export performance, competitive advantage, marketing capabilities

• Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Lengler, Jorge F. B. & Martínez-López, Francisco J. (2014). Testing for linear and quadratic effects between price adaptation and export performance : the impact of values and perceptions. Journal of Small Business Management. ISSN 0047-2778. 52(3), p. 501–520. doi: 10.1111/jsbm.12046. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Managerial perceptions are essential in explaining strategic decisions. It is, therefore, surprising that despite a number of studies that have examined the impact of managerial characteristics in exporting, little research has been reported in the export literature that investigates the importance of managers' perceptions on strategic decisions and resultant performance outcomes. To address this gap in the literature, the authors examine the key determinants of managers' psychic distance as well as its influence on international pricing decisions, and this in turn, on the export performance of small and medium sized enterprises. We also examine the quadratic effects of price adaptation on export performance. This is particularly relevant as price adaptation and export performance have been assumed in the literature to have a linear relationship. The results show that managers' perceptions have a significant impact on pricing decisions and resultant performance outcomes. Our findings also indicate that price adaptation has an inverted U‐shaped relationship with export performance.

• Tsinopoulos, Christos; Lages, Luis Filipe & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2014). Export experience counts : exploring its effect on product design change. R&D Management. ISSN 0033-6807. 44(5), p. 450–465. doi: 10.1111/radm.12078. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In this paper, we explore how managers' export experience can affect the change in product design following changes in perceived past performance. Using data from 519 Portuguese exporters, we find that performance improvement will encourage safe decision making in which firms either will not change the product design or will change it in a way that makes it more similar across the product range. However, when managers' export experience is greater, they encourage change in ways that could support product differentiation. The abilities of experienced managers to read the market, i.e. to interpret changes in performance and translate them into product specifications, help explain these findings. We contribute to the literature in two ways. First, we explore the relationship among past export performance change, product design, and managers' export experience. Second, we identify specific kinds of design changes that firms adopt in response to changes in different dimensions of organizational performance. Based on our findings, we would recommend to new product development managers to consider both managers' export experience and the dimension used to measure performance when evaluating calls for standardizing the design by export managers. Our findings suggest that such calls could be driven by short‐term gains in export performance. Furthermore, we would also emphasize the need to routinely capture information from experienced export managers to ensure that it is considered in future decisions about design changes.

• Guillamón-Saorín, Encarna & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2014). Voluntary disclosure of press releases and the importance of timing : a comparative study of the UK and Spain. Management International Review (MIR). ISSN 0025-181X. 54(1), p. 71–106. doi: 10.1007/s11575-013-0194-z. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This paper investigates the effect of proprietary costs in relation to managers’ decisions to disclose information. Further, we look into the impact of factors affecting the timing of disclosures in a comparative study of Spain and the UK. Our investigation focuses on management earnings press releases discussing annual results. These press releases allow managers great discretion in terms of the decision to release and the timing. Our results show that the potential for growth is negatively related to the likelihood of a company voluntarily issuing a press release. Moreover, once the decision to voluntarily disclose is made, the timing is also relevant. We find significant differences in the timing of press releases between the two countries examined in this study. Also, significant differences between companies having or not having an investor relations department are evident. The existence of an investor relations function in the company seems to have a different impact depending on the country. Interestingly, even though corporate performance seems not to have a direct effect on the timing of the press release, this factor is moderated by the country where companies operate. Keywords: voluntary disclosure, press releases, timing, investor relations department, Spain, UK 

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Novello, Simone (2014). The influence of distributor support and price adaptation on the export performance of small and medium-sized enterprises. International Small Business Journal. ISSN 0266-2426. 32(4), p. 359–385. doi: 10.1177/0266242612466876. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Although a number of studies have examined the antecedents of export performance, little empirical attention has been given to the influence of distribution support and price adaptation on this issue. To address this gap in the literature, this article develops a new model which integrates these two constructs as key variables affecting export performance. The results suggest that support given to the distributor has a strong and positive impact on export performance. In addition, the findings indicate that distribution support plays a mediating role in the model. Contrary to expectations, the results show that price adaptation has no significant impact on export performance. Although in the literature price adaptation and export performance is assumed to have a linear relationship, further analysis shows a non-linear (U-shaped) relationship between these two constructs. The implications of these findings along with the limitations of the study are discussed. Keywords: distribution support, export performance, non-linear relationship, price adaptation

• Lengler, Jorge; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Marques, Catarina (2013). Examining the relationship between market orientation and export performance : the moderating role of competitive intensity. In Jean, Ruey-Jer; Shiou, Jyh-Shen & Zou, Shaoming (Ed.), International Marketing in Rapidly Changing Environments. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. ISSN 9781781908969. p. 75–102. doi: 10.1108/s1474-7979(2013)0000024008. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Despite some attempts to integrate the market orientation construct into the international marketing area, most conceptual and empirical studies have been conducted in the context of domestic operations. To address this gap we examine whether competitive intensity moderates the relationships among the components of market orientation and export performance. Data was used from 197 Brazilian export companies. Results suggest that interfunctional coordination enhances customer and competitor orientation. Moreover, customer orientation has no direct effect on export performance, while competitor orientation has a positive effect on firm’s international performance. Findings also indicate that competitive intensity moderates all the relationships tested in the model. Keywords: export performance, customer orientation, competitor orientation, interfunctional coordination, competitive intensity, Brazil

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Coelho, Filipe (2013). Exploring the relationship between individual values and the customer orientation of front-line employees. Journal of Marketing Management. ISSN 0267-257X. 29(15/16), p. 1653–1679. doi: 10.1080/0267257x.2013.798674. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Because of the nature of services, namely the inseparability of production and consumption, employee behaviours influence customer perceptions of service quality and satisfaction with the service provider. In particular, customer-oriented employees seek to help customers by addressing their needs, and this contributes to the building of customer satisfaction and the development of a relationship. Not surprisingly, research has been investigating the drivers of employees’ customer orientation. This paper examines how individual values influence the customer orientation of front-line service employees, a topic that has been unexplored in extant literature, and this is useful for the selection of employees who match the firm’s service strategy. To accomplish this, the study relies on the Schwartz value theory, which is applied to front-line employees in banking. The findings indicate that both resultant conservation and resultant self-enhancement affect the customer orientation of employees, and that these effects are moderated by job satisfaction and autonomy. Keywords: individual values, customer orientation, job satisfaction, autonomy

• Lengler, Jorge; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Marques, Catarina (2013). Exploring the linear and quadratic effects of customer and competitor orientation on export performance. International Marketing Review. ISSN 0265-1335. 30(5), p. 440–468. doi: 10.1108/IMR-03-2011-0087. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: Despite some attempts to integrate the market orientation construct into the international marketing area, most conceptual and empirical studies have been conducted in the context of domestic operations. In addition, few studies have examined the quadratic effects of customer and competitor orientation on export performance. To address this gap in the literature we test a model that examines whether customer and competitor orientation have linear or quadratic relationships with export performance. We also investigate if competitive intensity moderates the linear and quadratic relationships between customer and competitor orientation and export profit. Design/methodology/approach: The hypotheses are tested using survey data collected from 197 Brazilian export firms. Structural equation modeling was conducted to test the hypothesized relationships and to validate the proposed conceptual model. Findings: Empirical evidence reveals that, while customer orientation has a U‐shaped relationship with export sales, the competitor orientation–export profit relationship is linear. Our results also provide evidence that the positive quadratic relationship between customer orientation and export profit is mediated by export sales. Contrary to expectations, the results also indicate that none of the linear or quadratic relationships investigated in the model are moderated by competitive intensity. Originality/value: We test a model in an export context that examines whether the relationships between the separate components of market orientation and export performance are linear or quadratic. We also contribute to the literature by examining these relationships in the context of a developing country, namely Brazil. Keywords: customer orientation, competitor orientation, export performance

• Bradley, Frank; Gao, Yuhui & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2013). A natural science approach to investigate cross-cultural managerial creativity. International Business Review. ISSN 0969-5931. 22(5), p. 839–855. doi: 10.1016/j.ibusrev.2013.01.006. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract As the relative effectiveness of physical resources decreases toward parity with rivals due to their fungibility, the firm's marketplace position, established by managers with a particular set of inter-culturally attuned set of personal values, may be the key antecedent in creating competitive strength in the firm. The research question addressed is how creative are culturally diverse managers; are managers from certain countries more creative than adaptive? We tested hypotheses in a cross-cultural setting based on the survey responses of 1365 managers operating in eight countries located in four culturally diverse regions of the world. Our study shows that managers are both creative and adaptive but the mixture of creative and adaptive behaviour varies depending on region and country and even within countries. Furthermore, the results confirm that creativity among managers in some countries is similar but large differences also exist between countries.

• Tan, Qun & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2013). International marketing standardization : a meta-analytic estimation of its antecedents and consequences. MIR. Management International Review: journal of international business. ISSN 0938-8249. 53(5), p. 711–739. doi: 10.1007/s11575-013-0172-5. Full text in Research Archive
• Martínez-López, Francisco J.; Gázquez‐Abad, Juan C. & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2013). Structural equation modelling in marketing and business research : critical issues and practical recommendations. European Journal of Marketing. ISSN 0309-0566. 47(1/2), p. 115–152. doi: 10.1108/03090561311285484. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: Structural equation modelling (SEM) is a method that is very frequently applied by marketing and business researchers to assess empirically new theoretical proposals articulated by means of complex models. It is, therefore, a logical thought that the quality of the new advances in marketing and business theory depends, in part, on how well SEM is applied. This study aims to conduct an extensive review and empirical analysis of a broad variety of classic and recent controversies and issues related with the use of SEM, in order to identify problematic questions and prescribe a compendium of solutions for its suitable application. Design/methodology/approach: The main analyses were conducted on a sample of 191 SEM‐based papers and 472 applications, i.e. all the SEM‐based studies published in four leading marketing journals during the period 1995‐2007. Findings: Despite the maturity of SEM, its application in marketing research still has notable room for improvement. This is a general conclusion based on numerous problems detected and discussed here. Practical implications: The study provides plausible solutions to the problems identified, a useful guide that is easy to follow and to apply adequately to present SEM issues in marketing and business studies. Research limitations/implications: The sample of SEM‐based papers and applications is limited to four publication outlets. A wider set or/and other journals different to those analyzed here may be preferred. Originality/value: This is a valuable and timely study of the application of SEM in marketing and business research, and is also useful as a guiding framework for good practice. Likewise, as the problems discussed here presumably occur in other areas of social science, this paper should be welcome beyond the borders of the business disciplines. Keywords: structural equation modelling, critical review, controversies, good practice, marketing

• Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Coelho, Filipe & Guillamón-Saorín, Encarna (2012). Personal values, autonomy, and self‐efficacy : evidence from frontline service employees. International Journal of Selection and Assessment. ISSN 0965-075X. 20(2), p. 159–170. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2389.2012.00589.x. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Employee's self‐efficacy has been related with important outcomes for organizations, such as service quality and job performance. Thus, understanding the antecedents of self‐efficacy can have important payoffs. Accordingly, this paper investigates how personal values interact with autonomy to affect employee's self‐efficacy. The hypotheses are tested with a sample of bank employees. The results reveal that conservation is negatively related to self‐efficacy and that both openness to change and self‐enhancement values have a positive impact on self‐efficacy. Autonomy is also positively associated with self‐efficacy. Finally, autonomy mitigates the negative effects of conservation on self‐efficacy, and strengthens the positive effects of self‐enhancement on self‐efficacy.

• Silva, Susana Costa; Bradley, Frank & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2012). Empirical test of the trust–performance link in an international alliances context. International Business Review. ISSN 0969-5931. 21(2), p. 293–306. doi: 10.1016/j.ibusrev.2011.03.006. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Despite the widespread use of trust as a determinant of successful relationships, limited empirical evidence exists to substantiate a positive relationship between trust and performance. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate the antecedents of trust and to examine the trust–performance relationship in international alliances. The conceptual model was tested empirically using primary data collected from 232 international alliances involving Portuguese and international firms. The results reported suggest that when controlling for the experience and size of a firm, trust has a strong and positive effect on performance. Key antecedents identified as significant influencers on trust are shared values, communication and opportunistic behaviour. Additionally, interaction effects are identified, indicating that similarities among partners enhance the positive relationship between trust and performance.

• Martínez-López, Francisco J.; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Gázquez-Abad, Juan C. (2011). A cultural constructivist analysis of the internet's role in the international approximation of markets. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice. ISSN 1069-6679. 19(1), p. 57–80. doi: 10.2753/MTP1069-6679190104. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This research theoretically introduces and discusses a macrocultural research question: the likely cultural rapprochement of markets as a consequence of the en masse use of the Internet worldwide. Such a general issue is not only interesting to the (international) marketing discipline but also, due to its interdisciplinary viewpoint, to other areas such as sociology and social psychology. In addition, more particular, microlevel implications in the consumer identity and consumption culture, as well as in companies' global positioning, are also undertaken. To enable this, an integrative conceptual model was built, with diverse elements, which is articulated through a set of propositions. An ad hoc exploratory qualitative study was also developed, whose main outcomes are used to complement the theoretical analyses in this paper. The analysis and projections are based on the prism adopted by recent constructivist approaches to the study of culture, such as the dynamic constructivist approach and the social constructivist theory. These are characterized by their dynamic view of culture.

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Lengler, Jorge (2011). Examining the determinants of interfunctional coordination and export performance : an investigation of Brazilian exporters. Advances in International Marketing. ISSN 1474-7979. 21, p. 189–206. doi: 10.1108/s1474-7979(2011)0000021011. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Although interfunctional coordination plays a key role in the performance of the firm, the literature has largely ignored it compared to the other two market orientation components: customer orientation and competitor orientation. The question of whether our current knowledge can be generalized to firms from the developing world has also been neglected since most studies have been conducted in developed countries. To address these issues, a model was developed here to empirically examine the relationship between interfunctional coordination and export performance as well as to identify the key determinants of both constructs. A sample of 201 senior managers of export firms in Brazil was used to test the hypotheses. The results suggest that the legal regulations and technical requirements, competitive intensity, and technological orientation of the product are positively related to interfunctional coordination. Contrary to expectations, the results also confirm that the difference in the stage of the product life cycle is negatively related to interfunctional coordination. In turn, interfunctional coordination has a positive effect on firms' export performance. Keywords: Export performance, interfunctional coordination, market orientation, Brazil

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Ruzo, Emilio (2011). Managerial determinants of export performance : direct and moderating effects. In Jain, Subhash C. & Griffith, David A. (Ed.), Handbook of research in international marketing. 2nd ed.. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISSN 9781849803021. p. 249–266. doi: 10.4337/9781849806121.00020. Full text in Research Archive
• Tan, Qun & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2011). Research on export pricing : still moving toward maturity. Journal of International Marketing. ISSN 1069-031X. 19(3), p. 1–35. doi: 10.1509/jimk.19.3.1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Over the past four decades, there has been a considerable number of studies that have examined the determinants and outcomes of export pricing. However, despite this large volume of studies, the knowledge of the determinants and consequences of export pricing is characterized by a fragmented, diverse, and inconsistent collection of findings that hinders scholarship and practical advancement in the field. A major reason for this absence of clear insights is the lack of synthesis and assimilation of the fragmented knowledge. To address this gap in the literature, the authors review and evaluate 98 articles published between 1971 and 2010. The results indicate that although significant progress has been made in recent years, research on export pricing is still characterized by the lack of a strong theoretical basis, the failure to agree on the relevant determinants of export pricing, and some weakness in research designs and analytical techniques, which may explain the many contradictory and confusing findings in the literature. On the basis of these findings, the authors discuss several implications, and consider directions for further research. Keywords: export pricing, literature review, export performance

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Lages, Luis Filipe (2011). The PD scale : a measure of psychic distance and its impact on international marketing strategy. International Marketing Review. ISSN 0265-1335. 28(2), p. 201–222. doi: 10.1108/02651331111122678. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: Despite considerable research on psychic distance (PD), research into the topic is confounded by a general failure to precisely define and fully operationalize the construct. The purpose of this paper is to develop a new measurement scale to assess psychic distance (the PD scale), and also to investigate the impact of the PD scale on the adaptation of international marketing strategies. Design/methodology/approach: The paper uses data collected by mail questionnaire in a sample survey of 301 export firms. The results were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Various statistical tests show that the results are reliable and valid. Findings: Findings reveal that psychic distance is a higher‐order construct composed of two dimensions: country distance and people distance. The results also indicate that both dimensions of the PD scale are positively and significantly associated with cultural distance and the adaptation of product, promotion, pricing and distribution strategies to the foreign market. Originality/value: The paper develops a new scale, the PD scale, which is a measure of psychic distance and addresses a gap in the literature by testing its impact on the adaptation of the international marketing strategy. Keywords: national cultures, international business, marketing strategy

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Coelho, Filipe (2011). From personal values to creativity : evidence from frontline service employees. European Journal of Marketing. ISSN 0309-0566. 45(7/8), p. 1029–1050. doi: 10.1108/03090561111137598. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: This paper seeks to examine how personal values and the way employees respond to the organization and the job impact on employee creativity. Specifically, the paper proposes a framework that argues that creativity is a function of the employee's personal values, of organizational commitment and customer orientation. Moreover, it also aims to investigate the moderating effects of commitment and customer orientation on the relationship between personal values and employee creativity. Design/methodology/approach: The conceptual model was tested empirically using data collected by questionnaire in a sample of 266 bank employees. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis is relied on to test the hypothesized model. Findings: The empirical results indicate that personal values, organizational commitment, and customer orientation are important drivers of the creativity of frontline employees. In addition, the paper also detected some moderating and mediating effects. Originality/value: The contribution of this paper is fourfold. First, the influence that personal values might have on an employee's creativity is studied. Second, a conceptual model that incorporates variables concerning how employees respond to the context in which they work is developed: organizational commitment and customer orientation. The simultaneous effects of the organizational commitment and customer orientation of frontline employees on creativity are examined, to the best of the paper's knowledge, for the first time in the literature. Third, the interaction effect between personal characteristics and commitment and customer orientation on creativity is investigated. Finally, the study also contributes to current literature by examining these issues in the context of frontline service jobs. Keywords: creativity, frontline service employees, personal values, organizational commitment, customer orientation, banks

• Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Ruzo, Emilio & Losada, Fernando (2010). The key role of managers' values in exporting : influence on customer responsiveness and export performance. Journal of International Marketing. ISSN 1069-031X. 18(2), p. 1–19. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Values are an essential element explaining a person's attitudes and behavior. Therefore, it is surprising that despite the number of studies that have examined the organizational and managerial factors affecting export performance, little research has investigated the possible impact of a manager's individual values on strategic choice and the export performance of the firm. To address this gap in the literature, the authors examine the impact of managers' values on the firm's customer responsiveness and export performance. In addition, they examine the mediating role of customer responsiveness in the values–export performance linkage. The authors explore the empirical usefulness of the psychic distance construct by examining its direct link with export performance and the extent to which it moderates the relationship between individual values and export performance. Overall, the results suggest that managers' values significantly influence strategic decisions and the export performance of the firm, highlighting the need for more research attention in this area. Keywords: individual values, export performance, customer responsiveness, psychic distance

• Guillamón-Saorín, Encarna & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2010). Press release disclosures in Spain and the UK. International Business Review. ISSN 0969-5931. 19(1), p. 1–15. doi: 10.1016/j.ibusrev.2009.11.002. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Despite acknowledging the importance of different types of press releases in the accounting literature, researchers have conducted little systematic empirical research on this topic. To address this issue the present study examines the antecedents of a firm's decision to issue an Annual Results Press Releases (ARPRs) in a cross-national context, using Spain and the UK. The study investigates for the first time the relationship among ARPRs, earnings performance, the existence of an investor relations department (IRD), company size, and ownership concentration. Using a sample of 246 publicly traded Spanish and UK companies, this article shows that the two countries have significant differences in the disclosure of press releases. Moreover, size and the existence of an IRD were found to have a significant and direct effect on the disclosure of press releases. Finally, the results also indicate that ownership structure and company size play an important role as moderators to explain the effect on disclosure of press releases. Implications of these findings along with limitations and directions for further research are discussed. Keywords: voluntary disclosure, press releases, ownership concentration, performance, UK, Spain

• Lages, Luis Filipe & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2010). Export Performance. In Sheth, Jagdish N. & Malhotra, Naresh K. (Ed.), Wiley international encyclopedia of marketing. John Wiley & Sons. ISSN 9781405161787. doi: 10.1002/9781444316568.wiem06029. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The increasing number of studies on the subject of export performance bears testimony to the importance of this topic in the international marketing literature over the past decades. However, despite considerable research in this area, there is very little consensus on the key antecedents and outcomes of export performance as well as on how to conceptualize and operationalize export performance. Regarding the mode of assessment, it is acknowledged that export performance is a multifaceted concept and that the use of multiple indicators is necessary for a reliable assessment of the construct. The implementation of longitudinal research allows for dynamic model building and would contribute to theory development in the area. Moreover, short‐ and long‐term assessment should be considered when measuring the export performance of a firm. Future studies are also encouraged to include control and moderating variables in their models to rule out alternative explanations. The present study indicates that while the discussion about the unit of analysis is far from over, researchers should be aware when mixing variables measured at different levels of analysis in their studies. Finally, it is critical that the future development of comprehensive and psychometrically sound measures of export performance is aligned with the managerial world.

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2010). Marketing aspects of cultural distance. In Sheth, Jagdish N. & Malhotra, Naresh K. (Ed.), Wiley international encyclopedia of marketing. John Wiley & Sons. ISSN 9781405161787. doi: 10.1002/9781444316568.wiem06044. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Cultural distance is a widely used construct in international marketing, where it has been identified as a key variable in explaining the behavior of firms in a vast array of areas including entry‐mode choice, foreign‐market selection, level of control, international‐marketing strategies, and performance. Existing studies, however, have provided mixed empirical results regarding the importance of cultural distance in the literature. Various reasons have been proposed to explain these inconclusive results. The argument that preferences and tastes of consumers in different countries are converging to a global norm appears to be plausible considering the emergence of the Internet, greater ease of information flow, and more frequent/easier international travel. Nonetheless, these inconsistent findings could also be attributed to the difficulty that exists in the conceptualization and operationalization of the cultural‐distance concept. Researchers are encouraged to provide a clear definition of cultural distance in their studies and be aware that the operationalization must be consistent with the conceptualization of the construct. Finally, the overreliance on Kogut and Singh's formula or an adapted version as a measure of cultural distance has led to an increasing call in the literature to develop new measures of cultural distance.

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Bradley, Frank (2009). Effects of export assistance and distributor support on the performance of SMEs : the case of Portuguese export ventures. International Small Business Journal. ISSN 0266-2426. 27(6), p. 681–701. doi: 10.1177/0266242609344253. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The presumed effect of export assistance programmes and distributor support on the export performance of SMEs, though intuitively rational, has not been tested or validated in any systematic fashion in the export literature. To address this issue the authors develop a new model, which integrates these two constructs as critical variables affecting export performance. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were used to test hypotheses. The research findings, which are based on a survey of 287 senior managers responsible for international markets, suggest that export assistance programmes and distributor support are significant determinants of export performance. Implications of these findings along with the limitations of the study are discussed. Keywords: distributor support, export assistance, export performance

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Bradley, Frank (2009). Price adaptation in export markets. European Journal of Marketing. ISSN 0309-0566. 43(3/4), p. 438–458. doi: 10.1108/03090560910935514. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to identify the key factors that influence price adaptation in export markets. Design/methodology/approach: The conceptual model was tested empirically using data collected by mail questionnaire in a sample survey of 140 firms. The results were analysed using structural equation modelling and the method of estimation was maximum likelihood (ML). Various statistical tests show that the results were reliable and valid. Findings: The results reported here suggest that while controlling for the size of the firm, the degree of price adaptation is strongly influenced and conditioned by the degree of product, promotion, and distribution adaptation as well as by the differences that exist between the home and the foreign market. Originality/value: Despite calls for research on the adaptation of pricing in export markets little headway has been made in understanding the issue in the literature. This study adds to the limited empirical research work done in this area. Although past research points to a link between product adaptation and price adaptation and between distribution adaptation and price adaptation, empirical research that includes simultaneously the link between the three elements of the marketing mix (product, promotion, and distribution adaptation) and price adaptation is largely missing in the literature. These relationships have been tested in this paper and found to be relevant to the understanding of pricing in international markets. Keywords: pricing, international pricing, marketing strategy, business environment, Portugal

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Lengler, Jorge (2009). Psychic distance, marketing strategy and performance in export ventures of Brazilian firms. Journal of Marketing Management. ISSN 0267-257X. 25(5/6), p. 591–610. doi: 10.1362/026725709X461876. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Compared to other issues examined in the exporting literature, less attention has been paid to the performance implications of following a standardisation or adaptation strategy. In addition, despite the interest in the psychic distance construct in the international marketing literature, there has been also little empirical research on the effect of managers' psychic distance on the international marketing strategies of the firm. To address these issues the present study offers an empirical investigation of the relationship among psychic distance, international marketing strategies, and export performance of Brazilian firms. A sample of senior managers of industrial firms in Brazil is used to test the hypotheses. The results reported here indicate that the degree of international marketing strategy adaptation is affected by the manager's psychic distance towards the foreign markets. Product and promotion adaptation were found to have a positive effect on export performance while surprisingly, distribution and price adaptation were found to influence export performance negatively. Contrary to expectations, the results also confirm that psychic distance has a positive effect on the export performance of the firm. Implications of these findings along with the limitations of the study are discussed. Keywords: psychic distance, international marketing strategy, export performance

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Bradley, Frank (2008). Cultural distance and psychic distance : refinements in conceptualisation and measurement. Journal of Marketing Management. ISSN 0267-257X. 24(5/6), p. 467–488. doi: 10.1362/026725708X325959. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Cultural distance and psychic distance are two concepts that are widely used in the marketing literature to assess the differences between countries. The purpose of this study is to draw attention of researchers and managers to the general failure in the literature to differentiate between the cultural distance and psychic distance concepts. A critical review of the use of these concepts, outlining their theoretical and methodological properties, shows that a large number of studies use both concepts interchangeably with no clear distinction between them. The concepts are, however, conceptually distinct and address different phenomena. A framework is proposed that allows researchers and managers to recognise the exclusive properties of the two concepts. Keywords: cultural distance, psychic distance, literature review, notion of equivalence, level of analysis, issue of symmetry

• Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Martínez-López, Francisco J. & Coelho, Filipe (2008). The determinants of export performance : a review of the research in the literature between 1998 and 2005. International Journal of Management Reviews. ISSN 1460-8545. 10(4), p. 343–374. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2370.2008.00232.x. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Considerable attention has been paid to the determinants of export performance. However, despite this research effort in identifying and examining the influence of such determinants, the literature is characterized by fragmentation and diversity, hindering theory development and practical advancement in the field. This paper attempts to review and synthesize the knowledge on the subject. As a result, this study reviews and evaluates 52 articles published between 1998 and 2005 to assess the determinants of export performance. The assessment reveals that: (a) more studies have been conducted outside the USA; (b) the majority of the studies focus on manufacturing firms, with relatively few studies examining the service sector; (c) the majority of the export studies continue to focus on small to medium‐sized firms; (d) there is a continuous increase in the sample size; (e) despite the problems that may arise from the use of single informants, it seems that none of the studies reviewed here collected data from more than one informant in the firm; (f) an increasing number of studies have been using the export venture as the unit of analysis; (g) the level of statistical sophistication has improved; (h) the use of control and moderating variables in export performance studies has increased; (i) more studies have started to include the external environment in their models, including domestic market characteristics; and (j) market orientation as a key determinant of export performance emerges in this review. Finally, conclusions are drawn, along with some suggestions for further research.

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Bradley, Frank (2008). Antecedents of international pricing adaptation and export performance. Journal of World Business. ISSN 1090-9516. 43(3), p. 307–320. doi: 10.1016/j.jwb.2007.11.007. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Using data collected from over 300 firms, price adaptation and export performance were measured at the export venture level and analyzed by way of structural equation modeling. The manager's international experience and the characteristics of the foreign market were found to influence price adaptation and export performance, which itself was influenced by price adaptation. We concluded that international pricing strategies should reflect the environmental characteristics of the foreign market. A price standardization strategy had a positive impact on the export performance of the firm and, a surprising result, firms appeared to perform better in countries that were very different from their home country.

• Martínez-López, Francisco J.; Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Sanchez-Franco, Manuel J. (2006). Should globally oriented online firms be flexible with their market strategies? International Journal of Business Environment. ISSN 1740-0589. 1(3), p. 350–364. doi: 10.1504/IJBE.2006.010929. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This paper studies the standardisation/adaptation debate regarding the international marketing strategies of global companies with a focus, in this case, on the context of the internet-based electronic markets. It discusses the importance of considering the set of business environmental factors that characterises every domestic market when designing and applying an international marketing programme. This topic is especially interesting when analysed in the case of the electronic markets. In conclusion, it is recommended that global companies on the internet should design their international marketing programmes with a strategic hybrid perspective. The most profitable strategic approach may be that which plays with a mix of standardised and customised market tactics. In this sense, at least, it is convenient that global firms consider those national cultural aspects that characterise their international customers| portfolio. Keywords: business environment, consumer culture, global companies, internet, online firms, marketing strategies, electronic markets, standardisation, adaptation, flexibility, international marketing

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Bradley, Frank (2006). Cultural distance and psychic distance : two peas in a pod? Journal of International Marketing. ISSN 1069-031X. 14(1), p. 49–70. doi: 10.1509/jimk.14.1.49. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Cultural distance and psychic distance are two concepts that are widely used in the international business literature. A large number of studies use both concepts interchangeably with no clear distinction between them. The authors propose a new model to assess cultural distance and psychic distance separately. Through the use of survey data of more than 300 managers, this article shows that both concepts are conceptually different and that psychic distance is determined by cultural distance and the individual values of the managers. Keywords: cultural distance, psychic distance, conservation values, international marketing strategy

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Bradley, Frank (2005). Global markets : does psychic distance matter? Journal of Strategic Marketing. ISSN 0965-254X. 13(1), p. 43–59. doi: 10.1080/0965254042000328668. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This paper examines the impact of psychic distance on the international marketing strategy of the firm, particularly the degree of adaptation of the marketing programme. The relationship between psychic distance and marketing strategy has received relatively little focused research attention despite the importance these two constructs separately enjoy in the literature. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling are used to substantiate the relationship between psychic distance and international marketing strategy. The research findings, which are based on a survey of more than 300 managers and owners responsible for the foreign markets of their firms, suggests that psychic distance explains a significant proportion of the variance of the degree of marketing programme adaptation. The paper concludes with the implications of these findings with respect to the explanatory power of the psychic distance concept in the context of the international marketing strategy. Keywords: international marketing strategy, marketing mix, degree of standardization/adaptation, psychic distance

• Martínez-López, Francisco J. & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2004). Is the internet the worldwide cultural catalyst? : a theoretical approach. The Irish Journal of Management. ISSN 1649-248X. 25(2), p. 30–44. Full text in Research Archive
• Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2004). Export performance measurement : an evaluation of the empirical research in the literature. Academy of Marketing Science Review. 8(9), p. 1–22. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Increased globalization of trade has led a growing number of firms to search beyond their traditional domestic markets and focus on high-growth export markets not only to expand but also to ensure their very survival. As a result, the role of exporting in firms’ activity has become increasingly important. Recognition of this is reflected in the fact that the area of export performance has been gaining increased attention among academics and managers. Research into export perform-ance dates back to the innovating work of Tookey (1964); since then there have been numerous studies published over the last four decades that have been concerned with the export performance of the firm. However, in spite of these research efforts, there is a lack of synthesis and agreement in the conceptualization and operationalization of the construct. This paper reviews 43 empirical studies concerning the measurement of export performance published between 1998 and 2004. The study is organized into four sections: First, a description of the review methods including the criteria used for a study to be eligible for inclusion. Second, the descriptive properties of the 43 studies selected are summarized and evalu-ated along three dimensions: (a) fieldwork characteristics (i.e., country of study, industrial sector, and firm size); (b) sam-pling and data collection (i.e., sample size, data collection method, response rate, nonresponse bias, key informant, and unit of analysis); and (c) statistical analysis. Third, export performance measures employed in the literature are analyzed. Fourth, findings are discussed in detail, along with directions for future research. Keywords: export performance, objective and subjective measures, literature review

• Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2003). Determinants and measures of export performance : review, evaluation, and synthesis. Revista Portuguesa de Marketing. ISSN 0873-2949. 7(15), p. 17–26. Full text in Research Archive
• Sousa, Carlos M.P. & Bradley, Frank (2002). An Assessment of value structure and content in Ireland. The Irish Journal of Management. ISSN 1649-248X. 23(1), p. 109–123. Full text in Research Archive

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• Larimo, Jorma; Arte, Pratik; Sousa, Carlos M.P.; Ghauri, Pervez N. & Mata, José (2022). Research handbook on foreign exit, relocation and re-entry : theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 9781800887138. 416 p. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This definitive Research Handbook explores the restructuring strategies of globalised firms, bringing together a wide range of topics from export exit, subsidiary divestment and market re-entry to relocation, offshoring and backshoring.

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• Martínez-López, Francisco J. & Sousa, Carlos M.P. (2008). Editorial: Marketing transformation to the new e-business environment. International Journal of Business Environment. ISSN 1740-0589. 2(2), p. 101–115. Full text in Research Archive

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